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A 3D enviornment includes many entities in addition to a full terrain visualization. There are few challenges when trying to achieve high quality visualization. This is closely related to the legal framework and initial registration of 3D spatial units 3D parcels. An initial categorization of 3D parcels was set up Thompson et al. Figure 3 displays a general 3D spatial unit which can be defined by boundaries other than horizontal and vertical. Two remaining challenges that depend on country-level decisions are the definition of what are acceptable valid 3D cadastral object representations, and how to create their 3D geometries even nonmanifold geometries.
It should also support the related 3D standards. Although a lot of work has been completed on defining a 3D vector geometry in standards by the OGC and the ISO, it is still insufficient to define 3D cadastral objects.
For a volumetric 3D cadastral object, for example, the polyhedron needs to satisfy characteristics such as closeness, interior connection, face construction and proper orientation.
As with 2D geometry, 3D volumetric primitives would need to satisfy the adjacency and incidence gaps and overlaps relationship so that they are mutually exclusive and spatially exhaustive in the domain. While standards and definitions for solids exist, such as the PolyhedralSurface in the SQL Geometry Types of OGC as well as other definitions for solids, they are currently not well utilized and do not comply sufficiently with standards.
It is highly problematic to validate such solids and exchange datasets between formats and platforms. This does not usually follow any standards, and error reports are usually cascading rather than in a single report, thus making it very cumbersome to deal with errors individually.
Slovakia and their representation on the existing 2D cadastral map. Only the entrance portal can be seen on the map. In this case, every entrance portal is established on a separate building parcel. Right — a possible visualization of the underground wine cellar as a 3D parcel together with digital terrain model and existing 2D parcel boundaries. However, one identified issue is the duplication of the definition of boundaries for separate spatial units.
Three-dimensional objects can also be represented using voxels volumetric pixels. This brings advantages in object representation, object count and volume, 3D operations and simple analysis, and represents 3D as a solid instead of point, line and polygon. The challenges to this are the storage and efficient handling by current spatial databases. However, some GIS systems are working towards creating a column store structure to accommodate voxels.
Another possibility is to represent 3D objects as a point cloud. Lidar point clouds could assist in terms of being a reference framework of as-constructed features, or a 3D data acquisition tool for 3D physical objects, or a verification tool for pre-existing building information modelling BIM or other models. Point cloud data can be used for data such as administrative, vector, raster, temporal, etc. While 3D topological structures have been defined, they are not fully compliant with standards such as LADM.
LADM not only provides a conceptual description of a land administration system, but also provides a 3D topology spatial profile. LADM also stipulates that geometrical information along with an associated topological primitive help to describe 3D spatial units. As a result, planning processes especially have to take into account the use of photovoltaic technology, geothermal energy, wind energy and the energetic isolation of buildings.
From a process perspective, data must be available to provide actual information of the environment and all energetically relevant topics in combination with up-to-date 3D building information.
Very often this leads to a data-collection or at least to a data-processing task. Based on the required information, the analysis and evaluation will give a sustainable picture of the energy balance, including possible savings from the use of renewable energy and energetic isolation of buildings.
Urban planning 3D geometry and semantics, particularly of buildings, are also useful in the field of noise protection in terms of simulating and mapping noise expansion. A European Directive obliges the member states of the European Union to determine and to document noise pollution in cities every five years, and to check the progress of noise reduction.
The use of cadastral information for urban planning has always been essential, even in the 2D world, especially to consider the property distribution. Nowadays 3D information is a basic demand of the urban planning sector see the example in the image on the right.
Demographic effects and other restrictions could be visualised in planning alternatives. On the downside, these models did not have the designated quality or permanent updating mechanisms. Several investigations have proved that minimal additional information is needed to build a 3D spatial dataset using the existing 2D spatial cadastral data and to keep the information up to date. That information is: the number of floors, ridge direction and the building height.
Most of that information already exists from the planning process; additional data is collected during the cadastral survey. With this data-collection approach during the survey, a future 3D cadastre could be implemented sustainably. More detailed building information LoD 3 and 4 will not be included in the cadastre since this is regarded as a private-sector task.
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